Awesome starter setup for you and your 9 year old HF 1/2hp lathe with that custom table and tools is a great low pressure way to learn together. Eastern red cedar from your firewood pile is perfect for first projects: it's soft, aromatic, turns easily, smells great, and makes nice bowls or candlesticks just seal well since it's a softwood and can dent.
Your first question blanks for simple bowls: Grab kiln dried ones to skip waiting drying drama start with forgiving hardwoods like soft maple easy to turn, pretty grain, beginner favorite or poplar cheap, forgiving, but plain. For a bit more wow, go cherry or walnut smooth, beautiful finish. Reliable spots:
Woodcraft.com or Rockler.com solid selection, good prices on domestic bowl blanks.
Buy a 6x6x3" or similar cheap "practice" blank $20-40to destroy learning, then one nicer for the real bowl attempt.
Your second question prioritize species for future drying: From your list, top picks for turning bowls easy, durable, nice results:
Red maple soft maple-ish, turns well, good grain.
Persimmon super hard domestic ebony feel, cuts smooth, premium for grips bowls worth the effort despite hardness.
Honey locust hard, clean cuts, nice color figure.
American elm gorgeous when figured, underrated for bowls.
Hickory tough, turns well with sharp tools great for durable pieces
Peach pretty, but fruitwoods can crack dry slow.